Basrah Journal of Veterinary Research,Vol.17, No.3,2018
Proceeding of 6th International Scientific Conference,College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Basrah,Iraq
556
CARDIOPROTECTIVE AND ANTILIPIDEMIC ROLE OF OCIMUM
BASILICUM SEEDS OIL AND LINUM USITATISSIMUM SEEDS OIL IN
ACUTE MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION MALE RABBITS INDUCED BY
ISOPROTERENOL
Zainab Abbas Hasan Muna H. AL-Saeed
Department of Physiology, Pharmacology and Biochemistry, College of Veterinary Medicine, Basra
University, Basra. Iraq.
Key word: Basil seed Oil, Flaxseed Oil. ECG, Heart rate.
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This study was undertaken to investigate the possible protective effect of Ocimum basilicum
seeds oil and Linum usitatissimum seeds oil on heart function, antioxidant and lipid profile test, when
induced acute myocardial infarction in rabbits by isoproterenol. Thirty-six male rabbits were divided
into six groups: group (C): control negative, group (ISO): received isoproterenol (control positive),
(BP) group: basil seed oil protective group, (FP) group: flaxseed oil protective group, (BT) group:
basil seed oil treated group and (FT) group: flaxseed oil treated group. ECG and blood samples
tropnine I, antioxidant enzymes and lipid profile were done. The analysis of ECG in rabbits treated
with isoproterenol showed T wave inversion and an increase in heart rate. While rabbits treated with
basil oil and flaxseed oil restored T wave and heart rate to near normal. The results of the experiment
revealed that administration of basil oil and flaxseed oil in all groups caused a significant decrease
(p˂0.05) in cardiac troponin I and lipid profile (TC, TG, LDL, VLDL) and significant increase
(p˂0.05) in HDL and antioxidant enzymes Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx) and Superoxide
Dismutase (SOD) compare with ISO group. The study concluded the basil oil and flaxseed oil have
cardioprotective and ameliorative effects against acute myocardial infarction induced by
isoproterenol in experimental animals
Basrah Journal of Veterinary Research,Vol.17, No.3,2018
Proceeding of 6th International Scientific Conference,College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Basrah,Iraq
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INTRODUCTION
Myocardial infarction commonly known as heart attack is a disease that occurs when the blood
supply to a part of the heart is interrupted, causing ischemia, injury and ultimately to cell death of
heart tissue. It means necrosis of a region of myocardium caused by a disruption in the supply of
blood to the heart usually as a result of occlusion of a coronary artery also called as cardiac infarction
(1). Myocardial infarction is a type of acute coronary syndrome it is usually characterized by varying
degree of chest pain, sweating, weakness, nausea, arrhythmia and sometimes causes loss of
consciousness and even sudden death (2). Ocimum basilicum (basil) contain a wide range of
essential oils (such as lienoilic acid) is an important medicinal plant in a variety of traditional and
folk systems of medicines (3). In Ayurvedic medicine basil used for stomach spasm, colds, fever,
vomiting, antibiotic properties and lowers blood sugar levels. In Chinese medicine, basil is used for
kidney malfunction and gum ulcers. Since basil has the ability to lower blood pressure thought to
have an affinity for the heart, as well as serving the body to adapt to new demands and stresses (4,5).
Linumu sitatissimum (flax): The main chemical composition of flax are polyunsaturated fatty acids
which are an omega-3 family. Flaxseed oil has been used as a topical demulcent and emollient and as
a laxative, particularly for animals and flaxseed cakes have been used as cattle feed (6). Flaxseed is
also used for animal feed to improve animal reproductive performance and health (7,8). Several
studies have suggested that basil and flaxseed extract improve heart function and involved in
reducing lipid levels or its effects enhance of lipid-resistance to lipid oxidation(9,10). This work
aimed to determine the effect of protective and ameliorative effect of Ocimum basilicum seeds oil
and Linum usitatissimum seeds oil on heart function in acute myocardial infarction in male rabbits
induced by isoproterenol.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Thirty-six healthy male domestic rabbits brought from local market /Basra, weighting (1200-1450)
grams. The rabbits kept under observation for 10 days. They were provided with feed and tap water
adlibitum. Rabbits were randomly divided into six groups (6 rabbits for each group): Group C:
negative control received 1ml olive oil orally for 32 days. Group ISO: Positive control received
isoproterenol (70mg/kg S.C.) for 2 consecutive days. Group BP: Received 900 mg/Kg basil oil
orally for 32 days. Then, on day 31 isoproterenol (70mg/kg S.C.) for 2 consecutive days. Group FP:
Received 50 mg/Kg flaxseed oil orally for 32 days, then, on day 31, isoproterenol (70mg/kg S.C.) for
2 consecutive days. Group BT: Received isoproterenol (70mg/kg S.C.) for two consecutive days.
Basrah Journal of Veterinary Research,Vol.17, No.3,2018
Proceeding of 6th International Scientific Conference,College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Basrah,Iraq
558
Then, received 900 mg/Kg basil oil orally for 32 days. Group FT: Received isoproterenol (70mg/kg
S.C.) for two consecutive days. Then, received 50mg/Kg flaxseed oil orally for 32 days.
Preparation of Animals for Recording ECG: The rabbits were placed on a table and then
immobilized by ligation the abdomen and four limbs. Then, they were left about 10 minutes to get
calm. Electrodes were attached to the skin at the triceps brachii muscle of the right and left limbs
and biceps femoris muscle of the right and left hips. Where the alligator clips were attached
electrode, gel was rubbed into the skin, ECGs and heart rate were recorded by a direct writing
electrocardiogram. All ECGs were standardized at 1mv=10mm, with a chart speed of 25mm/sec.
ECG were recorded at 3ed, 15th and 33ed days of the experiment.
Blood collection: the blood samples were collected from ear margin vein (5 ml) by using butterfly
needles (23 G) at end of the experiment, Blood sample centrifuged to isolate blood serum to estimate
the biochemical measurement.
Biochemical assay: The serum biochemical test determined by using commercial kits: tropoin I
rapid test (Abon/China), Ichroma troponin I (Boditech/Korea), GPx (Elabscience/USA), SOD
(Elabscience/USA) and Lipid profile (Spinreact/Spain)
Statistical analysis of data was performed on the basis of Two-Way
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) by using computerized SPSS program version 22.0. The data were
presented as mean ± stander deviation.
Result
Electrocardiograph Data (ECG)
Effect of Isoproterenol group (70mg/kg S.C) for 2 consecutive days on ECG at the
pretreated period with basil oil and flaxseed oil (zero day) showed that there was
marked T wave inversion (negative wave) as compared with control group (positive T
wave).
C
Basrah Journal of Veterinary Research,Vol.17, No.3,2018
Proceeding of 6th International Scientific Conference,College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Basrah,Iraq
559
positive T wave
ISO
mark T wave inversion
Figure (2): Electrocardiograms of the control group (C) with normal patterns and
isoproterenol group (ISO) appear T wave inversion (negative wave) in lead I, II and aVF.
Effect of basil oil and flaxseed oil administration on ECG after 15 days showed normal patterns of
ECG, whereas the effect of basil oil and flaxseed oil on isoproterenol treated groups showed mild T
wave inversion as compared with Isoproterenol group.
C
Basrah Journal of Veterinary Research,Vol.17, No.3,2018
Proceeding of 6th International Scientific Conference,College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Basrah,Iraq
560
ISO
mark T wave inversion
BP
positive T wave
FP
Basrah Journal of Veterinary Research,Vol.17, No.3,2018
Proceeding of 6th International Scientific Conference,College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Basrah,Iraq
561
Positive T wave
BT
mild T wave inversion
FT
mild T wave inversion
Figure (3): Effect of basil seed oil and flaxseed oil on ECG patterns in isoproterenol treated rabbits in
day 15: (C) control, (BP) basil seed oil and (FP) flaxseed oil showing normal ECG pattern. (ISO)
isoproterenol treated show marked T wave inversion lead II. (BT) basil oil+ Isoprenaline and (FT)
Flaxseed oil +Isoproterenol showing mild T wave inversion.
Effect of basil oil and flaxseed oil administration on ECG after 33 days showed slight changes (T
wave inversion) on a pattern of ECG in group BP and group FP after injection of two consecutive
doses of isoproterenol when compared with ISO group. While BT and FT group showed restored T
wave to near normal as compared with control group.
C
Basrah Journal of Veterinary Research,Vol.17, No.3,2018
Proceeding of 6th International Scientific Conference,College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Basrah,Iraq
562
ISO
T wave inversion
BP
slight T wave inversion
FP
Slight T wave invertion
BT
Basrah Journal of Veterinary Research,Vol.17, No.3,2018
Proceeding of 6th International Scientific Conference,College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Basrah,Iraq
563
FT
Figure (4): Effect of basil seed oil and flaxseed oil on ECG patterns in isoproterenol treated rabbits in
day 32:(C) control, (BP) basil seed oil and (FP) flaxseed oil showing mild changes in T wave pattern.
(ISO) isoproterenol treated show marked T wave inversion lead II. (BT) basil oil+ Isoproterenol and
(FT) Flaxseed oil +Isoproterenol showing T wave near normal pattern.
The effect of oral administration of rabbits with (900 mg/Kg) basil oil and (50 mg/Kg) flaxseed oil
on heart rate explained in a (Table -1). There was a significant decrease (P<0.05) in heart rate data in
BP and FP group as compared with ISO group on day 33after injection with isoproterenol (70
mg/Kg) for 2 consecutive days whereas no statistics differences with control. While administration
of basil oil and flaxseed oil to AMI rabbits (BT and FT group) showed a significant decrease
(P<0.05) in heart rate data compared to ISO group in 33 days and no significant difference with
control.
Table (1): Effect of basil oil and flaxseed oil extract on heart rate in isoproterenol-induced
acute myocardial infarction in male rabbits
Parameter
Treatment
C ISO BP FP BT FT
Heart Rate
b/m
222
±2.85
B
279
±3.07
A
247
±10.9
B
242
±12.1
B
227
±4.63
B
226
±4.63
B
Values express as mean ± SD., n = 6/group. Capital letters denote difference between groups P<0.05.
C: control group, ISO: isoproterenol, BP: basil oil, FP: flaxseed oil for 30 days then received
isoproterenol, BT: AMI animals received basil oil, FT: AMI (Acute myocardial Infarction) animals
received flaxseed oil.
The results of serum troponin I concentration are presented in (Table -2). The effect of daily
administration of basil oil and flaxseed oil showed a significant decrease (P<0.05) in cT-I
concentration in the BP, FP, BT and FT groups when compared with ISO group and no significant
differences with the control group at the end of experiment.
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Proceeding of 6th International Scientific Conference,College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Basrah,Iraq
564
Table (2): Effect of Basil Oil and Flaxseed Oil Extract on Serum cTn-I Concentration on
Isoproterenol Induced Acute Myocardial Infarction in Male Rabbits.
Parameter Treatment
C ISO BP FP BT FT
Troponin I
ng/ml
0.56
±0.02
B
4.47
±1.26
A
1.39
±0.99
B
1.47
±1.15
B
1.13
±0.74
B
1.28
±1.01
B
Values express as mean ± SD., n = 6/group. Capital letters denote difference between groups P<0.05.
C: control group, ISO: isoproterenol, BP: basil oil, FP: flaxseed oil for 30 days then received
isoproterenol, BT: AMI animals received basil oil, FT: AMI (Acute myocardial Infarction) animals
received flaxseed oil.
The effect of basil oil and flaxseed oil on antioxidant parameters in AMI rabbits has been
presented in the (Table-3). The results showed a significant increase (P<0.05) on GPx in BP, FP, BT,
and FT groups compared with ISO group at the end of experiment and reach the normal levels
compared with control.
The serum SOD concentration results revealed significant decrease (P<0.05) in BP and FP group
treated with basil oil and flaxseed oil compared with control and there was a significant increase
(P<0.05) in these groups when compared with ISO group on day 33. However, the concentration of
SOD a significant increase (P<0.05) in BT group at the end of experiment days and a significant
increase (P<0.05) in FT group at 33 days of the experiment compared with ISO group.
Table (4): Effect of Basil Oil and Flaxseed Oil Extract on Serum GPx and SOD Concentrations
on Isoproterenol-Induced Acute Myocardial Infarction in Male Rabbits
Parameter Treatment
C ISO BP FP BT FT
GPx
U/L
4895.3
±469
A
2232.3
±335
B
4840.7
±455
A
4520.3
±383
A
4588.0
±325
A
4705.9
±280
A
SOD
U/L
63.8
±8.3
A
34.8
±5.3
C
51.6
±8.7
B
53.1
±4.5
B
46.8
±7.8
B
41.9
±7.2
B
Values express as mean ± SD., n = 6/group. Capital letters denote difference between groups PISO: isoproterenol, BP: basil oil, FP: flaxseed oil for 32 days then received isoproterenol, BT: AMI animals received
basil oil, FT: AMI animals received flaxseed oil.
Basrah Journal of Veterinary Research,Vol.17, No.3,2018
Proceeding of 6th International Scientific Conference,College of Veterinary Medicine
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The table (5) showed a significant decrease (P<0.05) in serum TC, TG, LDL and VLDL
concentration was observed in group BP, FP, BT and FT at the end of the experiment compared to
ISO group and there were no significant differences of TC and LDL value compared with control.
While there was a significant increase (P<0.05) in TG and VLDL in BP and FP compared with
control group. HDL concentration data revealed that a significant increase (P<0.05) in BP, FP, BT,
and FT group and within a group when compared with ISO group at the end of the experiment and a
significant decrease (P<0.05) as compared with control except for BT group.
Table (5): Effect of basil oil and flaxseed oil extract on serum TC, TG and HDL concentration
on isoproterenol-induced acute myocardial infarction in male rabbits.
Parameter
Treatment
C ISO BP FP BT FT
TC
mg/dl
97.41
±8.56
B
163.5
±21.87
A
107.17
±26.21
B
96.94
±8.34
B
95.88
±22.64
B
111.4
±25.7
B
TG
mg/dl
55.31
±16.14
C
240.27
±14.23
A
109.33
±12.59
B
105.40
±14.03
B
68.18
±24.18
C
63.9
±38.8
C
HDL
mg/dl
40.89
±0.66
A
23.68
±2.08
C
32.42
±4.55
B
29.14
±3.09
B
39.53
±4.11
A
29.43
±1.74
B
LDL
mg/dl
46.79
±9.28
B
88.8
±24.10
A
44.83
±17.11
B
46.39
±9.80
B
65.16
±27.9
B
69.75
±21.0
B
VLDL
mg/dl
11.06
±3.22
C
49.25
±1.47
A
21.86
±2.52
B
21.05
±2.80
B
12.72
±4.09
C
12.78
±1.47
C
Values express as mean ± SD., n = 6/group. Capital letters denote difference between groups PISO: isoproterenol, BP: basil oil, FP: flaxseed oil for 32 days then received isoproterenol, BT: AMI animals received
basil oil, FT: AMI animals received flaxseed oil
Basrah Journal of Veterinary Research,Vol.17, No.3,2018
Proceeding of 6th International Scientific Conference,College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Basrah,Iraq
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DISCUSSION
The isoproterenol administration caused T wave inversion, in electrocardiographic tracings as
reported in Figure (2) this finding agreement with(10, 11; 12). Normally the T wave represents the
period of ventricular repolarization and the ventricular muscle fibers begin to relax that occurs during
ventricular diastole. Mild ischemic is the most common cause of shortening of depolarization of
cardiac muscle because of this increases current flow through the K+2 channels. When the ischemia
happens only in one area of the heart the depolarization period of this area reduces out of proportion
to that in other portions. As a result, obvious changes in the T wave can take place and T wave
inversion occurs because ischemic tissue dose not depolarize normally (13).
The myocardium is composed of three electrical layers: the endocardium, the epicardium, and the
M-cell layer located within the mid myocardium, each of these layers has special electrical properties
and a different action potential. The M cell display a significantly longer action potential duration
than the pericardial and endocardial cell types and synchronize with the end of the T wave (14).
hypothesized that when myocardial infarction destroys endocardium, the long action potential of the
M-cell layer can dominate the ECG producing a markedly inverted T wave and very long QT
interval which are thought to reflect ischemic stunning of the subendocardium (15).
The ECG tracing of rabbits administrated with basil oil and then induced with isoproterenol on day
31 and 32 days and in group flaxseed oil and then isoproterenol on day 31 and 32 days showed mild
T wave inversion on 33 day compared with ISO group and the AMI animals (BT and FT group) on
basil oil and flaxseed oil treated showed an obvious improvement in their ECG pattern through the
period of experiment, indicating its protective effects on cell membrane function. The results agree
with (16) who found that pretreatment rats with basil oil before epinephrine administration inhibited
epinephrine induced ST-segment elevation because the basil oil has the potential effects to protect
the membrane of the myocardial cell.
Muralidharan, etal (17) noted that the alcoholic extract of basil produced marked negative
chronotropic and positive ionotropic actions on frog heart, and attributed it cardiotonic effect to
decrease in membrane Mg+2ATPase and increase in Ca+2 and Na+/K+ATPase. While The aqueous
extract produced positive ionotropic and positive chronotropic effects. so the aqueous and alcoholic
extracts respectively produced The cardiotonic and ß-adrenergic effects (17,10).
On the other hand, (18) suggest that dietary 3-n intake is associated with cardiac electrophysiology
in humans including slower atrioventricular conduction and ventricular repolarization, with potential
implications for arrhythmic risk. Moreover, (19) observed that omega-3 PUFA infusions to
exercising dogs highly susceptible to ischemia-induced fatal cardiac ventricular arrhythmias was
Basrah Journal of Veterinary Research,Vol.17, No.3,2018
Proceeding of 6th International Scientific Conference,College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Basrah,Iraq
567
shortening of the QT interval and prolongation of the electrocardiographic atrial-ventricular
conduction time.
Out of the results, there was a significant reduction in the heart rate in the BP, FP, BT and FT
group treated with basil and flaxseed oil respectively compared with ISO group. This finding agrees
with previous studies that showed the consumption of omega-3 PUFA is associated with increased
heart rate variability and decrease heart rate at rest, during stress and in myocardial ischemia
(20,21,22).
A previous study (23) showed that improvements in heart rate after n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
supplementation for men with a history of myocardial infarction for the 2-4 month, is due to altered
autonomic balance and a modification of the kinetic properties of voltage-gated myocardial ion
channels. Moreover, (24) suggest that heart rate reductions may result from changes in cardiac
autonomic regulation (improved parasympathetic and/or reduced sympathetic activity) and/or from
alterations in intrinsic pacemaker rate.
Also, (20) report that n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids ingestion or intravenous administration
reduce heart rate suggestive of an increase in cardiac parasympathetic regulation. On the other hand,
the reduction in heart rate appeared larger in trials with longer duration of intake, this may relate in
part to the time required for EPA and DHA to be integrated into the tissues where they exert their
effects and suggests that regular consumption over time may have larger effects than short term
intake (25). Similar reductions in heart rate due to omega-3fatty acids have been observed in
experimental animals in rat and rabbit model. These findings suggest that omega fatty acids effect on
heart rate at the level of the myocardium itself and are consistent with the concept that the voltagegated
ion channels that control the pacemaker currents in the heart (26,27).
A study in 2012 concluded that omega-3 fatty acids significantly reduce membrane electrical
excitability of the cardiac myocyte by decreasing its resting membrane potential and the duration of
the refractory period throughout inhibition of ion channels. These actions may be the principle
mechanisms for the omega-3 fatty acid-induced reduction of heart rate observed in both humans and
animals (28).
Troponin I are released to the plasma and their level rises when there is a cardiac muscles damage
(29). The results of the present study revealed significant decrease in cT-I in the groups treated with
basil oil and flaxseed oil respectively when compared with ISO group these results are in agreements
with (16) who showed that the basil oil with vitamin E in combination decrease cTn-I concentration
and may have therapeutic and prophylactic value in rats affected by myocardial infarction. Also,
(30) found that S/C injections of isoproterenol induced myocardial infarction in rats. However, the
Basrah Journal of Veterinary Research,Vol.17, No.3,2018
Proceeding of 6th International Scientific Conference,College of Veterinary Medicine
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supplementation of flaxseed oil to infarcted rats induced improvement in cTn-I which supports the
ethnopharmacological use of linseed oil in preventing cardiovascular diseases.
The results indicated to a significant increase in serum Gpx and SOD in all groups treated with basil
oil and flaxseed oil compared with ISO group (Table-4) results may be due to the presence of omega
PUFA and which acts as the antioxidant agent and neutralizing free radicals. These finding similar to
that reported by (31,32, 33). During acute myocardial infarction, superoxide radicals modulate the
activity of superoxide dismutase resulting in reduced activity of this enzyme and accumulation of
superoxide radicals with subsequent damage to the myocardium. Glutathione is involved in decrease
free radical hydrogen peroxide resulting in decreased activity of GPx in the heart of myocardial
infarction induced rats (34). The oxidative stress may be by quinine metabolites of isoproterenol
which react with oxygen to produce superoxide anions and others reactive oxygen species and
interfere with superoxide dismutase, glutathione reductase and ATP pumps (35).
The formation of reactive oxygen species plays a principle role in cardiac pathophysiology.
Therefore, the treatment of myocardial infarction can be virtually improved by targeting oxidative
stress (36). The present study agreement with (16) who reported that oral administration of basil oil
was able to improve and restore the level of endogenous antioxidants (GPx and SOD) in the serum
as compared to MI rats.
A new research in 2017 (37) reported that linalool (omega 6) restored the level of GPx and SOD in
affected cardiac tissue to a major extent. This explains that linalool could exert its action to protect the
myocardial damage by possibly restricting the generation of free radicals which can prevent the necrosis
of the tissue and will be restored tissue activity.
The present study noticed that isoproterenol caused a significant increase in all parameters of lipid
profiles (total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL and VLDL) and a significant decrease in HDL
compared with control, indicating isoproterenol induced hyperlipidemia, which consistent with
(38,39). The main causative side of isoproterenol induced hyperlipidemia a highly oxidative
metabolite of catecholamines like isoproterenol accelerates the rate of peroxidation in membrane
phospholipids and libration of free fatty acids into plasma by the action of phospholipase A2 and
increased generation of oxidized LDL which the main factor in the vascular damage associated with
high cholesterol levels (40,41).
Whereas, (42) suggested that an increased mobilization of LDL-cholesterol into the myocardial
membranes from the blood may have resulted in abnormal deposition of cholesterol in the
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Proceeding of 6th International Scientific Conference,College of Veterinary Medicine
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myocardium, and the plasma concentration of atherogenic LDL-cholesterol regulated by VLDL
production rate and the LDL utilization by LDL receptors (43).
Treatment different groups of rabbits with basil oil and flaxseed oil decreased isoproterenol
induced a high level of lipids. The same trend of lipid profile was observed in many previous
findings (44, 45). Also, (46) noted that basil a decrease in cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL and VLDL
and an increase in HDL level. These effects may be due to a hypolipidemic effect of Ocimum
basilicum via the inhibition of the key enzymes in triglycerides and cholesterol synthesis or
increasing cholesterol excretion through bile acid formation.
Another scientific report has demonstrated that the main mechanisms of Ocimum basilicum in
reducing lipid levels or its effects increase of lipid-resistance to lipid oxidation occur by some cofactors
such as Cu2+. Moreover, basil extract has the ability to reduce foam cell formation due to a
reduction of cholesterol synthesis and the modulation of the activity of surface scavenger receptors
(47). As well as holy basil can dissolve the cholesterol accumulated in the arteries (42).
A new study in 2016 (48) showed that flaxseed oil might be effective in controlling
cholesterolemic status and ameliorative dyslipidemia and has the potential in reducing cardiovascular
complications caused by hypercholesterolemia. Authors said that dietary flaxseed may inhibit
atherosclerosis due to a decrease of circulating cholesterol levels and at a cellular level by antiproliferative
and anti-inflammatory actions (49). Essential oils are a new option of bioactive
substances for cardiovascular drugs in animal models, the common properties of these substances are
lipid solubility and volatility (50).
In addition, (51) recorded that omega-3 fatty acids moderately influence plasma lipid
concentrations and stimulate fatty acid oxidation in the liver through peroxisome proliferator
activated receptor alpha. While, (52) showed that flaxseed supplementation reduced total cholesterol,
LDL, apolipoprotein B (ApoB) and apolipoprotein E (ApoE) cholesterol.
Previous research in 2010 (53) attributed the effect of n-3 PUFA in a lowering of plasma
triglyceride concentrations done by a combination of an increased clearance of circulating
triglycerides and a decrease inhepatic synthesis of triglycerides.
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