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BACTERIAL BOVINE MASTITIS IN IRAQ: A REVIEW
Sumaya, Y.A. Al-Dabbagh*, Ebtehal N. Mahmmoud, Aamer Y.H. Al-Chalaby
Department of Microbiology , College of Veterinary Medicine ,University of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq
(Received 6 May 2020 ,Accepted 25July 2020)
Keywords: Bovine Mastitis, S. agalactiae, Antibiotics.
Corresponding author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Bacterial mastitis is one of the most important diseases in high-production dairy cows
which causing high economic losses however it effect on the dairy industry, resulting in the
decline Dairy industry and quality, furthermore the cost of treatment. The annual losses due
to mastitis are approximately 184 U.S $ for each animal. Usually during milking, infectious
microorganisms are the major source of infection between healthy and infected udder
quarters. Environmental pathogens are found in the enclosing area of the cow, such as the
bedding of housing cows, soil and the waste product of the animals which contain
Streptococcal strains other than S. agalactiae, Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus
faecium and coliforms. Bacteria which involved in the udder inflammation process show
high resistance to antibiotics. The aim of this review article was to establish the bacterial
causes of clinical and subclinical mastitis in Iraq, and recognize its sensitivity to antibiotics,
then find proper solutions for the treatment and control of mastitis.
INTRODUCTION
The term mastitis derived from the Greek word for masto- which means mammary gland
and -itis means inflammation (1). Mastitis in cow is most important economic diseases
impacting to the dairy industry, leading to economic losses, which due to reduction of milk
yield, a change in the quality of milk, loss of milking days, a decrease in price of milk, in
addition to an increase in the cost of treatment as well as an impact on dairy quality (2,3).
Several estimates indicate that the affected quarter reduced productivity by 30% and the
affected cow reduced 15% of its milk production for lactation (4).
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Mastitis means inflammation of the parenchyma of mammary gland, due to physiological
and metabolic alterations, trauma and chemical irritants. Inflammation is categorized by
physical and chemical alterations in the milk with the presence of large numbers of different
types of bacteria in it, in addition to the pathological changes of the mammary glands
themselves, resulting from changes in the properties and components of natural milk in terms
of taste, color, smell, and increasing in somatic cells especially leukocytes in milk (5).
Microbes causing mastitis are differ according to the host and invasive pathogen factors,
in general, the distinctive appearance of the inflammatory response, udder swelling, hotness
pain and loss of functions, which include milk shortage, and inflammation as a result of the
invasion the udder by microorganisms that enter through the teat, circulation or through the
skin after penetrating the natural barriers inside the teat canal (6,7).
The microorganisms multiply after interring the mammary gland causing inflammation
that determines the type of bovine mastitis. According to clinical feature mastitis can classify
to two forms: subclinical and clinical of mastitis.
1- Clinical mastitis are classify according to the stage of the disease to per acute, acute,
subacute and chronic.
- Per acute mastitis: sever inflammation with swelling, heat and pain of the quarter, with a
marked systemic reaction, which may be fatal (6).
-Acute mastitis: severe udder inflammation without a marked systemic reaction (8).
-Sub-acute mastitis: mild udder inflammation with persistent abnormality of the milk,
appearance of flakes in it, and may become painful on palpation (6).
-Chronic mastitis: indurations of the gland, atrophy with no systemic reaction or continuous
changes in the physical features of milk that contain pus, flakes, clots, or aqueous appearance
were considered a most typical features of this type of mastitis (9).
Generally, Clinical mastitis is illustrated by occurs suddenly, redness, swelling of udder
with high temperature and pain, a decrease in milk production in affected quarters and
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watery milk, or it may contain clots or flakes in consistency and accompanied by fever,
anorexia and depression (6).
2- Subclinical mastitis does not show any obvious signs in the udder and milk (10), although
it is related with decreased milk yield and an increase in the Somatic cell count (SCC).
First lactation heifers appear less impact than in older lactating animals. Generally, there
is a negative relationship occur between Somatic cell count and milk production (11).
Milk from normal quarters usually contains about 200,000 somatic cells/ml. But the
value of Somatic cell count exceeding 300,000 is considered abnormal and indicated to the
udder inflammation (mastitis). The losses caused by mastitis in the dairy industry reached
526 million U.S $, of which the subclinical form was exposed to 70% of these losses (12).
Different environmental and pathogenic microorganisms cause mastitis, including
both of gram positive and negative bacteria, Mycoplasmas, Prototheca and Fungi (13). The
most common causative agent of mastitis are bacteria, which transmitted from infected
mammary glands to healthy glands in several ways, including milking hands, contaminated
milking machines and infant calves (14).The main bacterial causes of this inflammation are
Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus dysagalactiae,
Corynebacterium bovis and Mycoplasma spp. Infectious etiology is more prevalent than
other bacterial etiology and causes clinical mastitis (15).
There are some types of bacteria that colonize the teat canal and cause sub-clinical
infections or mild clinical diseases called secondary causes, including Coagulase-Negative
Staphylococci (CNS) and Corynybacterium bovis (6). The causative agent of mastitis are
divided into two parts according to the source of infection:
CONTAGIOUS PATHOGENS:
Usually adhering to the epithelial cells of mammary tissue or become intracellular, to
prevent themselves from the mechanisms of intramammary host defense. Contagious
pathogens which comprise Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactia, Streptococcus
dysgalactia, Corynebacterium bovis, and Mycoplasma bovis. These microorganisms cause an
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epidemic disease that spreads rapidly in the herd and consider as most common causes of
clinical mastitis and can transmit from an infected animal to healthy one (6,16).
ENVIRONMENTAL PATHOGENS:
About 90% of the pathogens responsible for mastitis are environmental (17), which is
found around the udder and reach the udder through the teat, and increased when
predisposing factor where available, such as humidity, stress and crowded animals. The
environmental pathogens for bovine mastitis were included Gram-positive bacteria, S.
uberis, Enterococcus faecalis, E. faecium , Staph. equinus ,Mycobacterium and Gramnegative
bacteria, Escherichia coli, Serratia, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
Enterobacter (18).
1- GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIAL MASTITIS:
a. Staphylococcus spp.
In Iraq many studies indicated that Staphylococcus aureus was the predominant organism
on clinical bovine mastitis, in one of these studies (19) showed that 18/20 (90%) of his
isolates was S. aureus. Some studies were in agreement results which isolated it in
proportion (55%-57.5%) (20,21,22,23,24), whereas other studies isolated it in different
percentage (45.9%, 42.45%, 35.7%, 33.33%, 32.5%, 32%, 23%, 23.2%, 16.9%)
(25,26,27,28,29,30, 31,32,33). Most of these isolates having some of the virulence factors,
including, capsules, production of coagulase enzyme and enterotoxin (20, 25), S. aureus also
isolated from subclinical mastitis in cow in varying proportions (45.33%, 44%, 38.9%,
33.87%, 32.5%, 10.12%), as studies of (34,35,36,37,38, 31) respectively.
These variations may be referred to differences in breeds, seasonal variation and
geographical distribution from south to north of Iraq . All of these incidences indicate to the
substantial value concerning the economic losses and public health prominence of the
disease in different regions of Iraq.
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Coagulase-negative Staphylococci (CNS), also isolated in some studies from clinical
mastitis, as (33, 39,40,41) showed in varying proportions (8.9%, 22.2%, 21.5%, 20%)
respectively, which included: S. scuiri, S. lentus, S. gallinerum, S. warneri, S. xylosus, S.
lugdunesis, S. heamolytica, S. chonii, S. hyicus, S. saprophyticus, S. intermedius and S.
epidermidis.
Although CNS bacteria are considered secondary causes of mastitis, some publication
have been proven the ability of CNS to stay for a long time in mammary glands without
unchanged in its microbial state during the period of milking, and they indicated that the
bacteria S. haemolyticus, S. intermedius and S. chromogenes have the ability to escape from
Immune system and stay in the glands for a long time, causing chronic mastitis (42), in
addition to the finding of (40) they showed that some isolates of CNS bacteria have the
ability to produce some virulence factors such as DNase, Urease, Protease, Lecithinase,
Lipase, Gelatinase, β- Lactamase and Haemolysin ,this study agree with (43).
The study of (44) indicate that there is a great similarity between the external proteins
produced by S. aureus and those of the S. haemolyticus, S. epidermidis and S. saprophyticus
and they suggest that they can be important virulent factors in human and animal infections,
thus CNS can be considered as a pathogenic bacteria, and this has been confirmed by
numerous studies indicated that these external enzymes combined have a role in the
pathogenicity of these bacteria (44).
In one studies were done at Basrah city(45) showed the effect of lysostaphin extracted
from S. simulans isolated from bovine mastitis against S. aureus, the effect of lysostaphin as
antibacterial against S. aureus in vitro, which gave good zone of inhibition on solid media.
The effect of lysostaphin against S. aureus in vivo also studied by experimental infection in
cow mammary glands, the lysostaphin presented important effect as an antibacterial agent,
the histological studies exhibited the significant effect of lysostaphin to prevent the growth
of S. aureus in mammary glands (45).
b. Micrococcus spp.
The studies of (43) indicated to isolate Micrococcus spp. from sub clinical mastitis in
(3.1%), in addition to isolated it in another study from bovine mastitis (46).
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c. Streptococcus spp.
The present study showed that streptococcal bacteria as important pathogens in both,
clinical and subclinical mastitis. Streptococcus agalactiae is classified as one of the most
important pathogens caused mastitis in cows, it was formed (22.2%, 18.6%) from clinical
and subclinical mastitis respectively in study of (27). The finding of (33,38) indicates that
(17.74%, 18.3%) of her isolates were Strept. agalactiae from clinical and subclinical mastitis
respectively. In addition to the study of (47) indicated that Strept. agalactiae formed (13.2%)
from bovine mastitis (73.3% sub clinically and 26.6 clinically).
Strept. agalactiae is the predominant species than other streptococcal bacteria in cases of
bovine mastitis because they are commensals on the skin and causes frequent colonization of
teats. Then they can easily transmitted to the teat canal during suckling or milking and
transmit from cow to cow during milking. They resistant to antibiotic because of their ability
to remain intra cellular and localize within micro abscessation in the mammary gland (48).
The finding of (22, 31,23) were isolated Streptococcus spp. from clinical mastitis in
percentage (45%, 16.56%, 5.5%) respectively. Whereas it formed (11.42%, 8.28%) from the
cases of subclinical mastitis (29,32). Another type of streptococcus included: Streptococcus.
dysgalactiae which formed (9.2%, 4.84%) from bovine mastitis (49,37), and Streptococcus.
uberis formed (5.1%, 2.4%, 1.6%) from clinical mastitis (49,32,33) but formed (11.29%)
from subclinical mastitis (37).
d. Enterococcus spp.
This type of bacteria is found in the intestine naturally and is excreted into the
environment with feces, thus contaminating the udder and can enter through teat orifice and
lead to mastitis (50). Two types of Enterococcus were isolated at a first time in Iraq included:
E. columbae and E. cloac dissolvent which isolated by (51)at Al-Qadisiyah province , his
study indicates that mastitis has new causative agents due the progress of the bacterial
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variations through the last decades especially as a result of mutations and antibiotic
resistance.
e. Granulicatella elegans
G. elegans is gram-positive bacteria also isolated at first time in Iraq (51). Was first
described in 1998 as oxidase-negative, catalase-negative, facultative anaerobic, non-motile,
gram-positive bacteria, pleomorphism with Gram staining. Forms range from bacilli in
simple media to short chains cocci in enriched media (52).
f. Arcanobacterium pyogenes
Some publication indicated that A. pyogenes is a causative agent of clinical mastitis and
its formed (14.3%, 5.95%, 9.3%) in studies of (27, 22,41) respectively. Another finding
indicated to the existence a relationship between mastitis and metritis in cows resulting from
A. pyogenes as shown in studies of (53,23). On the other hand, some studies showed mixed
infection between A. pyogenes with other bacteria on cases of bovine mastitis (46). These
bacteria are considered the causative agent of summer mastitis, the pathogenicity of these
bacteria belong to possess some of the virulence factors such as heamolytic exotoxin,
neuraminidase, protease and dermonecrotic exotoxin (8,54).
g. Bacillus cereus
Few studies indicated that B. cereus as a causative agent of clinical and subclinical
mastitis it is formed (1.4%, 12.1%) from clinical mastitis (41, 22), and formed (2.2%) from
subclinical mastitis (41).
2- Gram negative bacteria
There are many genus of Gram negative bacteria may cause mastitis in cows in both
forms clinical and subclinical mastitis, most of them are considered as environmental
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pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Serratia spp., Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa
and Enterobacter spp.
a. Escherichia coli
E. coli is a permanent part of the normal flora of the gastrointestinal tract in all mammals,
and some strains of E. coli associated with disease in humans and animals when predisposing
factors were available (16,8). Environmental mastitis caused by E. coli has been increased in
Iraq and many countries at the same time as other types of mastitis has been successfully
controlled, the severity of infection with E. coli mastitis is variation between the cows in the
same herd, and in the same animal during different stages of lactation (55,56).
Multiple studies of mastitis was conducted at the general governorates of Iraq from Al-
Sulaimania to Al- Basrah province , which indicated to variation incidence of E. coli
isolates, the percentage of E. coli isolated from clinical mastitis formed (37.8%, 20%,
17.12%, 9.2%, 3.88%,) as noted by (32,57,58, 31,59) respectively.
From subclinical mastitis E. coli also isolated in varied proportions (24.19%, 16.7%,
15.5%, 8.3%, 2.77% in the studies for (37,27,60,58,59) respectively. Other studies
(61,62,63,64,65,66,67), also indicated to isolate E. coli of different cases of bovine mastitis
in different parts of Iraq.
Environmental bovine mastitis which caused by E. coli is difficult to control because the
organisms are found in the soil and surrounding area in nature (68). E. coli which causes
mastitis considered as one of highest expensive disease in farm animal, also this disease
affected many high producing cows in dairy herds and may lead to several cases of death per
year in most severe cases with economic losses to the dairy industry (68).
b. Klebsiella pneumonia
Some studies indicate to the isolation of Klebsiella pneumonia in different region of Iraq
from bovine mastitis in (24%, 8.2%, 7.7%) as showed each in (30,22,33) respectively. Other
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studies isolated it from clinical mastitis (4.79%, 4.3%, 1.84%) (15,6,21). However, (27)
isolated Klebsiella pneumonia from subclinical mastitis in percentage of (7.15%).In addition
to isolated it with other bacteria as mixed infection (46).
Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp. are the most prevalent in clinical mastitis as it’s one
of the normal flora in the gastrointestinal tract in mammals, and can be transferred to the
udder easily by contamination the teat by milky hands or from contaminated barns (34)
c. Salmonella spp.
S. typhimurium are the most being isolated from bovine milk ,it is an important bacteria
that cause food borne disease when transmitted from milk to human causing food poisoning
(69) . Some studies indicated to isolation Salmonella spp. from clinical mastitis as we have
shown in the publication of (26,35,22,31) which isolated it in proportion (4.49%, 1.33%,
1.27%, 0.92%) respectively.
d. Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Mastitis is possibly the most important health syndromes on dairy farms. Pseudomonas
mastitis is a sporadic disease, but from time to time it may be caused a serious herd problem,
udder antibiotics have been participated in the development and distribution of Pseudomonas
mastitis (70).
In Iraq, some studies indicated that (6%, 4.4%, 3.8%, 3.7%) of isolates were P.
aeruginosa from clinical mastitis as it recorded by (71,60,22,31) respectively. On the other
hand, the study of (72) showed that P. aeruginosa formed 26.6% in AL-Diwaniya province
from bovine mastitis milk, and in agreement with (73) which isolated from bovine raw milk.
These bacteria are considered as environmental causes of mastitis and they reach the
udder by drinking water, contaminated milking tools and wounds. It can also enter the teat
by injecting antibiotics inside the udder, as it is an opportunistic bacterium and causing
infection in animals that suffer from deficiency diseases, immunity, usually the infection rate
with these bacteria as in Household breeding caw is higher than in cow fields and pastures
due to Indoor breeding conditions, crowded homes, and polluted with animal feces (68,74).
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e. Serratia marcescens
Serratia spp. are able of living in various environments, such as water, soil and the
digestive tracts of different animals. Some species of Serratia consider as a cause of mastitis,
including S. marcescens, S. liquefaciens and S. rubidaea (74).
In Iraq Serratia marcescens were isolated from bovine mastitis into two governorates
firstly in Mosul by AL-Dabbagh, 2012 in percentage (2.2%) (60), secondly in Baghdad (4%)
by (75). The infection with Serratia marcescens is effected with seasonal variation (76,77),
that increase in the dry period of years, the lactation phase it is also effected in it (78).
Serratia mastitis have been appearing as a resulting to growing of this bacteria in a teat
dip cup and in the animal bedding. In addition to bad hygiene and harm teat ends are thought
to increase the rate of mastitis (79).
f. Enterobacter aerogenes
In one study of Iraq that indicate to isolation of E. aerogenes from bovine mastitis which
is formed (3.3%) (60), it is considered as environmental pathogens, because it belong to the
coliform bacteria group which transmitted into the udder by contaminating it with animal
feces or by contaminated drinking water (80).
g. Proteus spp.
Proteus spp. belong to Enterobacteriacea group. These bacteria were isolated in one of
studies in Iraq from bovine mastitis in percentage (1.4%, 2.2%) from clinical and subclinical
mastitis respectively (27).
h. Aeromonas hydrophila
A. hydrophila formed (1.1%) in studies of (60) which done in Al- Mosul city. Naturally,
it is found in water and can be transferred to the udder through contaminated drinking water
and caused inflammation as it is one of the bacteria producing exogenous toxins and
Hemolycin (81).
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i. Pasteurella multocida
P. multocida formed (1.1%, 3.8%) in studies for each (60,22) respectively. These
bacteria are commensals in the mucous membranes of cows and cause many medical
conditions, including mastitis. When predisposing factors of infection were available because
it has many virulence factors, including: adhesives to the host's membranes that protect it
from phagocytosis (57). Also the studies of (22, 82) indicated to isolation of P. heamolytica
from the cases of bovine mastitis in percentage 10/157(6.3%), (1.4%) respectively.
DEFENSE MECHANISMS IN THE MAMMARY GLAND
Although the udder possesses many defensive mechanisms, such as the presence of the
sphincter and the keratin layer covering the epithelium natural squamous lining of the teat
channel as well as the presence of defensive immunoassay factors in normal milk, which
increases in the cases of infections such as lactobroxides, lactoferrin and lysis enzymes
Immunoglobulins and complement components (81,83), but many types of bacteria can
overcome to the defense mechanisms and cause infection due to some of the virulence
factors, the most important factors that Gram-negative having are the adhesives factors,
enzymes, and endotoxins that is released from the bacterium after its death or as a result of
its destruction by Inflammatory reactions leading to acute septicemia (74,79).
Studies have indicated the possibility of experimental inflammation by injection of
endotoxin of Escherichia coli and others type of Coliform bacteria, the degree of
inflammation often effects on a number of white blood cells and serum albumin level in milk
as endotoxin injection causes acute mastitis like infections in cases of experimental
injections with pathogens of the lactating gland. When measuring the level of several
prostaglandins, were showed the level was increased in cases of Escherichia coli bacterial
endotoxin injection through the teat while experimental injection of Klebsiella pneumonia
endotoxin, which cause increasing in the level of histamine and serotonin after injection with
it (84), usually the infection with coliform bacteria occur before and after birth in a few days,
as a result of the animal's debility before birth and reduction of immunity, during labor and
in the first days of breastfeeding (85,86).
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THE ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY TEST
Antibiotics have been used as mastitis treatment more than fifty years ago, but the
consensus about using the most safely, competence and economical drug is still deficient.
Furthermore the effect on public health should be taken into regarded as dairy cows produce
high amount of milk for human consumption (87).
The solubility of antibiotic in the lipid, ionization degree, and extent of binding to udder
protein and serum in addition to, the antimicrobial treatment for bovine mastitis creates
residues in milk, and avoidance of these residues is an important feature in the treatment of
mastitis (88). On the other hand, milk components should not interfere with the antibacterial
activity. Some studies showed the macrolides activity, trimethoprim, sulphonamides and
tetracyclines may be reduced with milk (89,90).
It is better to choose substance with a low minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)
value for the pathogen, particularly when antibacterial is administered systemically and the
antibacterial action should have bactericidal rather than bacteriostatic, because the
phagocytosis is weakened in the mammary gland (91), the antimicrobial susceptibility test in
vitro has been considered as an essential for treatment.
Antibiotics are used in animals for therapeutic purposes and as feed additives, this use
lead to produce bacterial resistance to certain antibiotics, which in turn transmits resistant
plasmids between the species of the genus of Staphylococcus and thus bacteria may be
found in contaminated milk (92).
In Iraq, studies for antibiotic sensitivity test were subjected, according the method of
Kirby-Bauer (disk diffusion assay). Most of these studies showed that agreement in some
findings to susceptibility to Staphylococcus spp. isolates from bovine mastitis to
ciprofloxacin and oxytetracycline and some for chloramphenicol but resistance to
vancomycin, lincomyin, ampicillin and penicillin G (40,41,82,87,93,94,95). The resistance
Staphylococci spp., especially, Staph. aureus, to penicillin G and ampicillin create a problem
in widespread (92,96).
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The study of Al-Edani at Basrah city showed that all isolates indicated previously, was
sensitive to chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, gentamycin and vancomycin. However, the
resistance to oxacillin and Penicillin exhibited by CNS and Staph. aureus were (76.9%,
84.6%, 62.5%, 68.75%) respectively (29).
In another study Al-Edani indicate the percentage of antibiotic resistance in the CNS was
(97.7%) for ampicillin, (86.4%) for novbiocen, penicillin and (77.2%) for oxacillin. While
recording (100%) of antibiotic sensitivity for each of ciprofloxacin, gentamycin and
chloramphenicol (24). On the other hand, (21) indicate that (20%) of Staph. aureus isolates
were resistant to methicillin.
Another finding indicates that Staph. aureus and Streptococcus spp. were more sensitive
to, amikacin, kanamycin, tobramycin and showed intermediate sensitivity to rifampicin
antibiotics. But gram negative bacteria including Salmonella spp., E. coli spp. and klebsiella
spp. were high sensitive to amikacin, kanamycin and tobramycin but intermediate sensitive
to ciprofloxacin antibiotics (26,63).
Most of Bovine mastitis isolates were highly sensitive to gentamycin, cloxacillin,
amoxicillin and intermediately sensitive to oxytetracycline. However Streptococcus,
Staphylococcus and Coliforms bacteria isolated were resistant to penicillin (28).
The results of (60) indicate that most of gram negative bacteria isolates were sensitive to
ciprofloxacin, gentamycin and cotrimoxazole, while resistant to ampicillin, but the isolates
showed a different proportion of sensitivity to tetracycline doxycycline, chloramphenicol and
neomycin.
Study of (59) showed that all E. coli isolates were resistant (100%) to lincomycin,
cloxacillin and cefuroxime, while showing (90.0%) resistance to novobiocin and ampicillin.
Some isolates showed sensitivity (90.0%, 86.7%) to streptomycin and cephalothin
respectively, but some of these isolates showed (83.3%, 46.7%, 33.3%) resistance to
tetracycline, polymixin and neomycin.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from bovine mastitis showed high resistance (100%)
to nalidixic acid and tetracycline, follow by gentamicin (50%), but less resistance percentage
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(16.6%, 33.3%) to the ciprofloxacin and cephalothin respectively, and indicted that P.
aeruginosa have been developed resistance against aminoglycosides through presence of aac
(3)-Ib gene and suggest that ciprofloxacin and cephalothin can be used as good choice of
treatment for bovine Pseudomonas mastitis (71).
The results of (75), showed that Serratia marcescens were resistant (100%) to Imipenem,
Tetracycline and Ampicillin follow by cefotaxime (66.66%), but it’s susceptible (100%,
83.33%, 66.66%, 50%) to Ciprofloxacin, gentamycin, chloramphenicol and nalidixic acid
respectively.
One study was done in Al-Sulaimaniyah district indicated that the synchronized use of
cephalexin, florophenicol and erythromycin may be beneficial for the treatment of
subclinical mastitis cases in cow (37). Another study in the same area was indicated that
cephalexin, florophenicol and gentamicin may be useful for the treatment of clinical bovine
mastitis in cows (31).
The excessive use of antibiotics in the field of animal and agricultural production and the
potential for transmission of many factors. The bacterial genetic resistance of these antigens
from these animals to human intestinal flora through food consumption. Contaminated with
these resistant bacteria negatively effects on human health and helps the emergence of more
serious chronic human diseases, it will be difficult to control and treat it with known
antibiotics (97).
MISCELLANEOUS STUDIES
Some studies in Iraq were deal with other aspects, such as physiological and
immunological state of bovine mastitis (98,99,100,101,102).
MASTITIS CONTROL PROGRAMS
There are different control measures of bovine mastitis such as the hygienic
management procedures, which include feeding practices, hygiene, animal husbandry and
general health care can provide to decreasing the incidence of udder infections.
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Treating infection with antibacterial, with good farming practices, help in this
endeavor to, least reduction, the incidence of bacterial mastitis infection within a herd.
However, the defect of using antibiotics creates residues in milk and when not administered
properly give bacteria the chance to mutate and become resistant to that antibiotic (103).
Moreover, in some cases, using antibiotics alone is not sufficient to destroy the pathogen is
depending on the type of pathogens.
Vaccination program, although the most mastitis vaccines fail to give long term of
immune responses, but vaccination idea, has been extensively studied in recent years.
lysostaphin, is a bactericidal enzyme developed from transgenic mice which demonstrated
the capability of preventing S. aureus infections successfully.
Selection of animals breed that are resistant to diseases and the incorporation of this
feature in farm herds is a promising alternative to reduce the problems which caused by
infectious diseases towards with applying sanitary conditions which reduces the need to use
drugs, then decrease the levels of product contamination and the environment.
Incorporation of genes which impart the resistance by selection more resistant breed,
is a good practice that should be encouraged. One of techniques were employed to select
disease resistant animals by using molecular markers in programs of genetic improvement.
These studies are created the knowledge about the genetic and biochemical mechanisms of
resistance by clarifying the actions of the respective genes (104).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks and appreciation to the, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Mosul for
their support in the review.
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التھاب الضرع الجرثومی فی الابقار: مراجعة علمیة
سمیة یاسین عبدلله الدباغ*، ابتھال نوفل محمود*، عامر یحیى الجلبی*
* فرع الاحیاء المجھریة, کلیة الطب الیبطری , جامعة الموصل,الموصل ، العراق
یعد التھاب الضرع الجرثومی احد أھم الأمراض فی الأبقار ذات الإنتاج العالی ویسبب خسائر اقتصادیة عالیة تؤثر فی
صناعة الألبان، مما یؤدی إلى انخفاض فی تصنیع الحلیب وجودتھ، بالإضافة إلى تکلفة العلاج. تبلغ الخسائر السنویة
بسبب التھاب الضرع حوالی ١٨٤ دولارًا لکل حیوان. عادةً ما تکون الکائنات الحیة الدقیقة المُعدیة أثناء الحلب المصدر
الرئیسی للعدوى بین أرباع الضرع السلیمة والمُصابة. تم العثور على مسببات الأمراض البیئیة فی المناطق المحیطة
Streptococcus بالابقار، مثل فراش الأبقار، والتربة ومخلفات الأبقار التی تحتوی على سلالات المکورات السبحیة
تظھر الجراثیم التی تشارک . coliform و Enterococcus faecium و Enterococcus faecalis و agalactiae
فی عملیة التھاب الضرع مقاومة عالیة للمضادات الحیویة. الھدف من ھذه المراجعة ھو تحدید الأسباب الجرثومیة
لالتھاب الضرع السریری وتحت السریری فی العراق، والتعرف على حساسیتھا للمضادات الحیویة، ثم إیجاد حلول فعالة
لعلاج والسیطرة على التھاب الضرع.
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