Metal nanoparticles as a therapeutic antibacterial agents in the era of antibiotics resistance: A review

[1]   G. A. Durand, D. Raoult, and G. Dubourg, ‘Antibiotic discovery: history, methods and perspectives’, Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents, vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 371–382, 2019.

[2]   T. M. Uddin et al., ‘Antibiotic resistance in microbes: History, mechanisms, therapeutic strategies and future prospects’, J. Infect. Public Health, vol. 14, no. 12, pp. 1750–1766, 2021.

[3]   A. I. Barzic and S. Ioan, Antibacterial drugs—From basic concepts to complex therapeutic mechanisms of polymer systems, vol. 2015. IntechOpen London, UK, 2015.

[4]   M. Gajdács and F. Albericio, ‘Antibiotic resistance: from the bench to patients’, Antibiotics, vol. 8, no. 3. MDPI, p. 129, 2019.

[5]   M. J. Culyba, C. Y. Mo, and R. M. Kohli, ‘Targets for combating the evolution of acquired antibiotic resistance’, Biochemistry, vol. 54, no. 23, pp. 3573–3582, 2015.

[6]   W. C. Reygaert, ‘An overview of the antimicrobial resistance mechanisms of bacteria’, AIMS Microbiol., vol. 4, no. 3, p. 482, 2018.

[7]   N. A. Lerminiaux and A. D. S. Cameron, ‘Horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes in clinical environments’, Can. J. Microbiol., vol. 65, no. 1, pp. 34–44, 2019.

[8]   G. Kapoor, S. Saigal, and A. Elongavan, ‘Action and resistance mechanisms of antibiotics: A guide for clinicians’, J. Anaesthesiol. Clin. Pharmacol., vol. 33, no. 3, p. 300, 2017.

[9]   E. M. Darby et al., ‘Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance revisited’, Nat. Rev. Microbiol., vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 280–295, 2023.

[10] H. S. Tuli, ‘Synergistic effect of copper nanoparticles and antibiotics to enhance antibacterial potential’, 2019.

[11] F. Fatima, S. Siddiqui, and W. A. Khan, ‘Nanoparticles as novel emerging therapeutic antibacterial agents in the antibiotics resistant era’, Biol. Trace Elem. Res., vol. 199, pp. 2552–2564, 2021.

[12] A. K. Thabit, J. L. Crandon, and D. P. Nicolau, ‘Antimicrobial resistance: impact on clinical and economic outcomes and the need for new antimicrobials’, Expert Opin. Pharmacother., vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 159–177, 2015.

[13] I. Y. Wong, S. N. Bhatia, and M. Toner, ‘Nanotechnology: emerging tools for biology and medicine’, Genes Dev., vol. 27, no. 22, pp. 2397–2408, 2013.

[14] M. Akhtar, M. K. Swamy, A. Umar, and A. A. Al Sahli, ‘Biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles from methanol leaf extract of Cassia didymobotyra and assessment of their antioxidant and antibacterial activities’, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., vol. 15, no. 12, pp. 9818–9823, 2015.

[15] K. A. Altammar, ‘A review on nanoparticles: characteristics, synthesis, applications, and challenges’, Front. Microbiol., vol. 14, p. 1155622, 2023.

[16] K. B. A. Ahmed, T. Raman, and A. Veerappan, ‘Future prospects of antibacterial metal nanoparticles as enzyme inhibitor’, Mater. Sci. Eng. C, vol. 68, pp. 939–947, 2016.

[17] Y. N. Slavin, J. Asnis, U. O. Hńfeli, and H. Bach, ‘Metal nanoparticles: understanding the mechanisms behind antibacterial activity’, J. Nanobiotechnology, vol. 15, pp. 1–20, 2017.

[18] P. Makvandi, C. Wang, E. N. Zare, A. Borzacchiello, L. Niu, and F. R. Tay, ‘Metal‐based nanomaterials in biomedical applications: antimicrobial activity and cytotoxicity aspects’, Adv. Funct. Mater., vol. 30, no. 22, p. 1910021, 2020.

[19] K. Ikuma, A. W. Decho, and B. L. T. Lau, ‘When nanoparticles meet biofilms—interactions guiding the environmental fate and accumulation of nanoparticles’, Front. Microbiol., vol. 6, p. 591, 2015.

[20] M. Zhang, K. Zhang, B. De Gusseme, W. Verstraete, and R. Field, ‘The antibacterial and anti-biofouling performance of biogenic silver nanoparticles by Lactobacillus fermentum’, Biofouling, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 347–357, 2014.

[21] M. Y. Al-darwesh, S. S. Ibrahim, and L. L. Hamid, ‘Ficus carica latex mediated biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles and assessment of their antibacterial activity and biological safety’, Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects, vol. 38, p. 101163, 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoso.2024.101163.

[22] M. F. Abdulrahman, A. S. Al-Rawi, L. L. Hamid, A. M. Aljumialy, W. M. Saod, and A. M. Al-Fahdawi, ‘Preparation of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) aerogel microsphere loaded with biogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles as potential antibacterial drug’, J. Mol. Struct., p. 137901, 2024.

[23] W. M. Saod, L. L. Hamid, N. J. Alaallah, and A. Ramizy, ‘Biosynthesis and antibacterial activity of manganese oxide nanoparticles prepared by green tea extract’, Biotechnol. Reports, vol. 34, p. e00729, 2022.

[24] W. M. Saod, M. S. Al-Janaby, E. W. Gayadh, A. Ramizy, and L. L. Hamid, ‘Biogenic synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles using Hibiscus sabdariffa extract: Potential for antibiotic development and antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria’, Curr. Res. Green Sustain. Chem., p. 100397, 2024.

[25] M. El-Subeyhi, L. L. Hamid, E. W. Gayadh, W. M. Saod, and A. Ramizy, ‘Biogenic Synthesis and Characterisation of Novel Potassium Nanoparticles by Capparis spinosa Flower Extract and Evaluation of Their Potential Antibacterial, Anti-biofilm and Antibiotic Development’, Indian J. Microbiol., pp. 1–10, 2024.

[26] M. Y. Al-darwesh, S. S. Ibrahim, and M. A. Mohammed, ‘A Review on Plant Extract Mediated Green Synthesis of Zinc oxide Nanoparticles and Their biomedical Applications’, Results Chem., p. 101368, 2024.

[27] L. L. Hamid, A. Y. Ali, M. M. Ohmayed, A. Ramizy, and T. Y. Mutter, ‘Antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticles and cold plasma in the treatment of hospital wastewater’, Kuwait J. Sci., p. 100212, 2024.

[28] L. B. Capeletti et al., ‘Tailored silica–antibiotic nanoparticles: overcoming bacterial resistance with low cytotoxicity’, Langmuir, vol. 30, no. 25, pp. 7456–7464, 2014.

[29] C.-N. Lok et al., ‘Proteomic analysis of the mode of antibacterial action of silver nanoparticles’, J. Proteome Res., vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 916–924, 2006.

[30] M. Mishra, S. Kumar, R. K. Majhi, L. Goswami, C. Goswami, and H. Mohapatra, ‘Antibacterial efficacy of polysaccharide capped silver nanoparticles is not compromised by AcrAB-TolC efflux pump’, Front. Microbiol., vol. 9, p. 823, 2018.

[31] R. Thomas, S. Snigdha, K. B. Bhavitha, S. Babu, A. Ajith, and E. K. Radhakrishnan, ‘Biofabricated silver nanoparticles incorporated polymethyl methacrylate as a dental adhesive material with antibacterial and antibiofilm activity against Streptococcus mutans’, 3 Biotech, vol. 8, pp. 1–10, 2018.

[32] J. A. Lemire, J. J. Harrison, and R. J. Turner, ‘Antimicrobial activity of metals: mechanisms, molecular targets and applications’, Nat. Rev. Microbiol., vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 371–384, 2013.

[33] Y. Du, T. Li, Y. Wan, and P. Liao, ‘Signal molecule-dependent quorum-sensing and quorum-quenching enzymes in bacteria’, Crit. Rev. Eukaryot. Gene Expr., vol. 24, no. 2, 2014.

[34] S. Ahmed, M. Ahmad, B. L. Swami, and S. Ikram, ‘A review on plants extract mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles for antimicrobial applications: a green expertise’, J. Adv. Res., vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 17–28, 2016.

[35] D. Paul, J. Gopal, M. Kumar, and M. Manikandan, ‘Nature to the natural rescue: silencing microbial chats’, Chem. Biol. Interact., vol. 280, pp. 86–98, 2018.

[36] P. Makvandi, G. W. Ali, F. Della Sala, W. I. Abdel-Fattah, and A. Borzacchiello, ‘Hyaluronic acid/corn silk extract based injectable nanocomposite: A biomimetic antibacterial scaffold for bone tissue regeneration’, Mater. Sci. Eng. C, vol. 107, p. 110195, 2020.

[37] P. Makvandi, G. W. Ali, F. Della Sala, W. I. Abdel-Fattah, and A. Borzacchiello, ‘Biosynthesis and characterization of antibacterial thermosensitive hydrogels based on corn silk extract, hyaluronic acid and nanosilver for potential wound healing’, Carbohydr. Polym., vol. 223, p. 115023, 2019.

[38] F. K. Alsammarraie, W. Wang, P. Zhou, A. Mustapha, and M. Lin, ‘Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using turmeric extracts and investigation of their antibacterial activities’, Colloids Surfaces B Biointerfaces, vol. 171, pp. 398–405, 2018.

[39] G. Franci et al., ‘Silver nanoparticles as potential antibacterial agents’, Molecules, vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 8856–8874, 2015.

[40] D. Seth et al., ‘Nature-inspired novel drug design paradigm using nanosilver: efficacy on multi-drug-resistant clinical isolates of tuberculosis’, Curr. Microbiol., vol. 62, pp. 715–726, 2011.

[41] K. S. Siddiqi, A. Husen, and R. A. K. Rao, ‘A review on biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles and their biocidal properties’, J. Nanobiotechnology, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 1–28, 2018.

[42] S. Liao et al., ‘Antibacterial activity and mechanism of silver nanoparticles against multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa’, Int. J. Nanomedicine, pp. 1469–1487, 2019.

[43] B.-M. Chang, L. Pan, H.-H. Lin, and H.-C. Chang, ‘Nanodiamond-supported silver nanoparticles as potent and safe antibacterial agents’, Sci. Rep., vol. 9, no. 1, p. 13164, 2019.

[44] M. Okkeh, N. Bloise, E. Restivo, L. De Vita, P. Pallavicini, and L. Visai, ‘Gold nanoparticles: can they be the next magic bullet for multidrug-resistant bacteria?’, Nanomaterials, vol. 11, no. 2, p. 312, 2021.

[45] A. Kukreja et al., ‘Preparation of gold core-mesoporous iron-oxide shell nanoparticles and their application as dual MR/CT contrast agent in human gastric cancer cells’, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., vol. 48, pp. 56–65, 2017.

[46] S. Khanna et al., ‘A Simple Colorimetric Method for Naked‐Eye Detection of Circulating Cell‐Free DNA Using Unlabelled Gold Nanoparticles’, ChemistrySelect, vol. 3, no. 41, pp. 11541–11551, 2018.

[47] K. Zheng, M. I. Setyawati, D. T. Leong, and J. Xie, ‘Antimicrobial gold nanoclusters’, ACS Nano, vol. 11, no. 7, pp. 6904–6910, 2017.

[48] E. A. Ortiz-Benítez, N. Velázquez-Guadarrama, N. V. Durán Figueroa, H. Quezada, and J. de J. Olivares-Trejo, ‘Antibacterial mechanism of gold nanoparticles on Streptococcus pneumoniae’, Metallomics, vol. 11, no. 7, pp. 1265–1276, 2019.

[49] S. Shaikh et al., ‘Mechanistic insights into the antimicrobial actions of metallic nanoparticles and their implications for multidrug resistance’, Int. J. Mol. Sci., vol. 20, no. 10, p. 2468, 2019.

[50] W. Jo and M. J. Kim, ‘Influence of the photothermal effect of a gold nanorod cluster on biofilm disinfection’, Nanotechnology, vol. 24, no. 19, p. 195104, 2013.

[51] P. Pallavicini et al., ‘Modular approach for bimodal antibacterial surfaces combining photo-switchable activity and sustained biocidal release’, Sci. Rep., vol. 7, no. 1, p. 5259, 2017.

[52] I. Venditti, ‘Engineered gold-based nanomaterials: Morphologies and functionalities in biomedical applications. a mini review’, Bioengineering, vol. 6, no. 2, p. 53, 2019.

[53] K. Hantke, ‘Bacterial zinc uptake and regulators’, Curr. Opin. Microbiol., vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 196–202, 2005.

[54] D. K. Blencowe and A. P. Morby, ‘Zn (II) metabolism in prokaryotes’, FEMS Microbiol. Rev., vol. 27, no. 2–3, pp. 291–311, 2003.

[55] B. L. Nairn et al., ‘The response of Acinetobacter baumannii to zinc starvation’, Cell Host Microbe, vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 826–836, 2016.

[56] K. Blecher, A. Nasir, and A. Friedman, ‘The growing role of nanotechnology in combating infectious disease’, Virulence, vol. 2, no. 5, pp. 395–401, 2011.

[57] E. Taylor and T. J. Webster, ‘Reducing infections through nanotechnology and nanoparticles’, Int. J. Nanomedicine, pp. 1463–1473, 2011.

[58] L. S. Reddy, M. M. Nisha, M. Joice, and P. N. Shilpa, ‘Antimicrobial activity of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticle against Klebsiella pneumoniae’, Pharm. Biol., vol. 52, no. 11, pp. 1388–1397, 2014.

[59] M. Mirhosseini and V. Arjmand, ‘Reducing pathogens by using zinc oxide nanoparticles and acetic acid in sheep meat’, J. Food Prot., vol. 77, no. 9, pp. 1559–1564, 2014.

[60] K. S. Siddiqi, A. ur Rahman,  null Tajuddin, and A. Husen, ‘Properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles and their activity against microbes’, Nanoscale Res. Lett., vol. 13, pp. 1–13, 2018.

[61] P. V Pimpliskar, S. C. Motekar, G. G. Umarji, W. Lee, and S. S. Arbuj, ‘Synthesis of silver-loaded ZnO nanorods and their enhanced photocatalytic activity and photoconductivity study’, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., vol. 18, pp. 1503–1511, 2019.

[62] S. Vijayakumar, B. Vaseeharan, B. Malaikozhundan, and M. Shobiya, ‘Laurus nobilis leaf extract mediated green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles: Characterization and biomedical applications’, Biomed. Pharmacother., vol. 84, pp. 1213–1222, 2016.

[63] C. Rensing and G. Grass, ‘Escherichia coli mechanisms of copper homeostasis in a changing environment’, FEMS Microbiol. Rev., vol. 27, no. 2–3, pp. 197–213, 2003.

[64] C. Espírito Santo, P. V. Morais, and G. Grass, ‘Isolation and characterization of bacteria resistant to metallic copper surfaces’, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., vol. 76, no. 5, pp. 1341–1348, 2010.

[65] G. Grass, C. Rensing, and M. Solioz, ‘Metallic copper as an antimicrobial surface’, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., vol. 77, no. 5, pp. 1541–1547, 2011.

[66] C.-W. Chen, C.-Y. Hsu, S.-M. Lai, W.-J. Syu, T.-Y. Wang, and P.-S. Lai, ‘Metal nanobullets for multidrug resistant bacteria and biofilms’, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev., vol. 78, pp. 88–104, 2014.

[67] L. Macomber and J. A. Imlay, ‘The iron-sulfur clusters of dehydratases are primary intracellular targets of copper toxicity’, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., vol. 106, no. 20, pp. 8344–8349, 2009.

[68] V. Ravishankar Rai and A. Jamuna Bai, ‘Nanoparticles and their potential application as antimicrobials’, A Méndez-Vilas A, Ed. Mysore Formatex, pp. 197–209, 2011.

[69] A. Pramanik, D. Laha, D. Bhattacharya, P. Pramanik, and P. Karmakar, ‘A novel study of antibacterial activity of copper iodide nanoparticle mediated by DNA and membrane damage’, Colloids Surfaces B Biointerfaces, vol. 96, pp. 50–55, 2012.

[70] B. K. Hafshejani, M. Mirhosseini, F. Dashtestani, F. Hakimian, and B. F. Haghirosadat, ‘Antibacterial activity of nickel and nickel hydroxide nanoparticles against multidrug resistance K. pneumonia and E. coli isolated urinary tract.’, Nanomedicine J., vol. 5, no. 1, 2018.

[71] W. Zhang, Y. Li, J. Niu, and Y. Chen, ‘Photogeneration of reactive oxygen species on uncoated silver, gold, nickel, and silicon nanoparticles and their antibacterial effects’, Langmuir, vol. 29, no. 15, pp. 4647–4651, 2013.

[72] R. M. Silva et al., ‘Proteic sol-gel synthesis, structure and magnetic properties of Ni/NiO core-shell powders’, Ceram. Int., vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 6152–6156, 2018.

[73] N. A. Kumar, N. S. Rejinold, P. Anjali, A. Balakrishnan, R. Biswas, and R. Jayakumar, ‘Preparation of chitin nanogels containing nickel nanoparticles’, Carbohydr. Polym., vol. 97, no. 2, pp. 469–474, 2013.

[74] M. Imran Din and A. Rani, ‘Recent advances in the synthesis and stabilization of nickel and nickel oxide nanoparticles: a green adeptness’, Int. J. Anal. Chem., vol. 2016, 2016.

[75] L. Zhu et al., ‘Synthesis of novel platinum-on-flower-like nickel catalysts and their applications in hydrogenation reaction’, Appl. Surf. Sci., vol. 423, pp. 836–844, 2017.

[76] S. Das, K. Vishakha, S. Banerjee, D. Nag, and A. Ganguli, ‘Tetracycline-loaded magnesium oxide nanoparticles with a potential bactericidal action against multidrug-resistant bacteria: In vitro and in vivo evidence’, Colloids Surfaces B Biointerfaces, vol. 217, p. 112688, 2022.

[77] L. Cai, J. Chen, Z. Liu, H. Wang, H. Yang, and W. Ding, ‘Magnesium oxide nanoparticles: effective agricultural antibacterial agent against Ralstonia solanacearum’, Front. Microbiol., vol. 9, p. 790, 2018.

[78] N. Beyth, Y. Houri-Haddad, A. Domb, W. Khan, and R. Hazan, ‘Alternative antimicrobial approach: nano-antimicrobial materials’, Evidence-based Complement. Altern. Med., vol. 2015, 2015.

[79] S. Saqib et al., ‘Synthesis, characterization and use of iron oxide nano particles for antibacterial activity’, Microsc. Res. Tech., vol. 82, no. 4, pp. 415–420, 2019.

[80] M. Aparicio-Caamaño, M. Carrillo-Morales, and J. J. Olivares-Trejo, ‘Iron oxide nanoparticle improves the antibacterial activity of erythromycin’, J Bacteriol Parasitol, vol. 7, no. 267, p. 2, 2016.

[81] L. M. Armijo et al., ‘Antibacterial activity of iron oxide, iron nitride, and tobramycin conjugated nanoparticles against Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms’, J. Nanobiotechnology, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 1–27, 2020.

[82] T. Itabashi et al., ‘Bactericidal and antimicrobial effects of pure titanium and titanium alloy treated with short-term, low-energy UV irradiation’, Bone Joint Res., vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 108–112, 2017.

[83] Y. Li, W. Zhang, J. Niu, and Y. Chen, ‘Mechanism of photogenerated reactive oxygen species and correlation with the antibacterial properties of engineered metal-oxide nanoparticles’, ACS Nano, vol. 6, no. 6, pp. 5164–5173, 2012.

[84] P. V Baptista et al., ‘Nano-strategies to fight multidrug resistant bacteria—“A Battle of the Titans”’, Front. Microbiol., vol. 9, p. 1441, 2018.

[85] J. R. Anasdass, P. Kannaiyan, R. Raghavachary, S. C. B. Gopinath, and Y. Chen, ‘Palladium nanoparticle-decorated reduced graphene oxide sheets synthesized using Ficus carica fruit extract: A catalyst for Suzuki cross-coupling reactions’, PLoS One, vol. 13, no. 2, p. e0193281, 2018.

[86] C. P. Adams, K. A. Walker, S. O. Obare, and K. M. Docherty, ‘Size-dependent antimicrobial effects of novel palladium nanoparticles’, PLoS One, vol. 9, no. 1, p. e85981, 2014.

[87] S. Gnanasekar et al., ‘Antibacterial and cytotoxicity effects of biogenic palladium nanoparticles synthesized using fruit extract of Couroupita guianensis Aubl.’, J. Appl. Biomed., vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 59–65, 2018.

[88] S. Ghosh, ‘Copper and palladium nanostructures: a bacteriogenic approach’, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., vol. 102, no. 18, pp. 7693–7701, 2018.

[89] M. Y. Vaidya, A. J. McBain, J. A. Butler, C. E. Banks, and K. A. Whitehead, ‘Antimicrobial efficacy and synergy of metal ions against Enterococcus faecium, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Acinetobacter baumannii in planktonic and biofilm phenotypes’, Sci. Rep., vol. 7, no. 1, p. 5911, 2017.

[90] G. M. Khiralla and B. A. El-Deeb, ‘Antimicrobial and antibiofilm effects of selenium nanoparticles on some foodborne pathogens’, LWT-Food Sci. Technol., vol. 63, no. 2, pp. 1001–1007, 2015.

[91] Q. Wang, P. Larese-Casanova, and T. J. Webster, ‘Inhibition of various gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria growth on selenium nanoparticle coated paper towels’, Int. J. Nanomedicine, pp. 2885–2894, 2015.

[92] D. Chudobova et al., ‘Comparison of the effects of silver phosphate and selenium nanoparticles on Staphylococcus aureus growth reveals potential for selenium particles to prevent infection’, FEMS Microbiol. Lett., vol. 351, no. 2, pp. 195–201, 2014.

[93] E. Kheradmand, F. Rafii, M. H. Yazdi, A. A. Sepahi, A. R. Shahverdi, and M. R. Oveisi, ‘The antimicrobial effects of selenium nanoparticle-enriched probiotics and their fermented broth against Candida albicans’, DARU J. Pharm. Sci., vol. 22, pp. 1–6, 2014.

[94] N. Srivastava and M. Mukhopadhyay, ‘Green synthesis and structural characterization of selenium nanoparticles and assessment of their antimicrobial property’, Bioprocess Biosyst. Eng., vol. 38, pp. 1723–1730, 2015.

[95] T. H. D. Nguyen, B. Vardhanabhuti, M. Lin, and A. Mustapha, ‘Antibacterial properties of selenium nanoparticles and their toxicity to Caco-2 cells’, Food Control, vol. 77, pp. 17–24, 2017.

[96] M. A. Ansari, H. M. Khan, A. A. Khan, S. S. Cameotra, Q. Saquib, and J. Musarrat, ‘Interaction of Al2O3 nanoparticles with Escherichia coli and their cell envelope biomolecules’, J. Appl. Microbiol., vol. 116, no. 4, pp. 772–783, 2014.

[97] D. Valerini et al., ‘Aluminum-doped zinc oxide coatings on polylactic acid films for antimicrobial food packaging’, Thin Solid Films, vol. 645, pp. 187–192, 2018.

[98] A. M. El Nahrawy, A. B. Abou Hammad, M. S. Abdel-Aziz, and A. R. Wassel, ‘Spectroscopic and antimicrobial activity of hybrid chitosan/silica membranes doped with Al 2 O 3 nanoparticles’, Silicon, vol. 11, pp. 1677–1685, 2019.

[99] R. S. Sabry, A. H. Ali Al-fouadi, and H. K. Habool, ‘Enhanced antibacterial activity of anodic aluminum oxide membranes embedded with nano-silver-titanium dioxide’, J. Adhes. Sci. Technol., vol. 32, no. 8, pp. 874–888, 2018.

[100]    P. D. Dwivedi, A. Misra, R. Shanker, and M. Das, ‘Are nanomaterials a threat to the immune system?’, Nanotoxicology, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 19–26, 2009.

[101]    L. Gonzalez, D. Lison, and M. Kirsch-Volders, ‘Genotoxicity of engineered nanomaterials: a critical review’, Nanotoxicology, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 252–273, 2008.

[102]    M. Korani, E. Ghazizadeh, S. Korani, Z. Hami, and A. Mohammadi-Bardbori, ‘Effects of silver nanoparticles on human health’, Eur. J. Nanomedicine, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 51–62, 2015.

[103]    V. Kumar, N. Sharma, and S. S. Maitra, ‘In vitro and in vivo toxicity assessment of nanoparticles’, Int. Nano Lett., vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 243–256, 2017.

[104]    J. Indrakumar and P. S. Korrapati, ‘Steering efficacy of nano molybdenum towards cancer: mechanism of action’, Biol. Trace Elem. Res., vol. 194, pp. 121–134, 2020.

[105]    A. Marzban, B. Seyedalipour, M. Mianabady, A. Taravati, and S. M. Hoseini, ‘Biochemical, toxicological, and histopathological outcome in rat brain following treatment with NiO and NiO nanoparticles’, Biol. Trace Elem. Res., vol. 196, pp. 528–536, 2020.

[106]    T. Y. Poh et al., ‘Inhaled nanomaterials and the respiratory microbiome: clinical, immunological and toxicological perspectives’, Part. Fibre Toxicol., vol. 15, pp. 1–16, 2018.

[107]    F. Fatima, N. Pathak, S. R. Verma, and P. Bajpai, ‘Toxicity and immunomodulatory efficacy of biosynthesized silver myconanosomes on pathogenic microbes and macrophage cells’, Artif. Cells, Nanomedicine, Biotechnol., vol. 46, no. 8, pp. 1637–1645, 2018.